Until it became common practice in the last decade to offer stock options to a relatively broad spectrum of employees, most people were content to receive stock options at all. Now, more savvy about compensation if bruised by the market downturn, employees more typically wonder whether the options they are offered are competitive with what they should expect from an employer in their industry, for an employee in their position. As more information has become available about the practices and functions of stock options, employees need solid data on stock options grant practices. Salary.com has researched the trends in high-tech companies during the dot-com boom. In a startup, it's not how many; it's what percentage Particularly in high-tech startup companies, it is more important to know what percentage of the company a stock option grant represents than it is to know how many shares you get. "Don't get caught up in the numbers," said Keith Fortier, a compensation consultant with Salary.com. "In a startup, the meaning is in the percentages." In a publicly traded company, you can multiply the number of options times the current stock price, then subtract out the number of shares times your purchase price, to get a quick sense of how much the options are worth. In a younger company - where shares are less liquid - it is harder to calculate what your options are worth, although they are likely to be worth more if the company does well than the options you might get in a publicly traded company. If you calculate what percentage of the company you own, you can create scenarios for how much your shares could be worth as the company grows. That's why the percentage is an important statistic. To calculate what percentage of the company you are being offered, you need to know how many shares are outstanding. One Salary.com user was able to negotiate an extra week of vacation because he asked his prospective employer this question. The value of a company - also known as its market capitalization, or "market cap" - is the number of shares outstanding times the price per share. A startup company might be valued at $2 million when an early employee joins the firm, but attain a value of $20 or even $200 million just a year or two later. Knowing that there are 20 million shares outstanding makes it possible for a prospective manufacturing engineer to gauge whether a hiring grant of 7,500 options is fair. Some companies have relatively large numbers of shares outstanding so that they can give options grants that sound good in terms of whole numbers. But the savvy candidate should determine whether the grant is competitive in terms of the percentage of the company the shares represent. A grant of 75,000 shares in a company that has 200 million shares outstanding is equivalent to a grant of 7,500 shares in an otherwise identical company with 20 million shares outstanding. In the example above, the manufacturing engineer's grant represents 0.038 percent of the company. This percentage may look small, but it translates into a grant value of $750 for the stock if the company is worth $2 million; $7,500 if the company is worth $20 million; and $75,000 if the company is worth $200 million. Annual grants versus hire grants in high-tech companies Although stock options can be used as incentives, the most common types of options grants are annual grants and hire grants. An annual grant recurs each year until the plan changes, while a hire grant is a one-time grant. Some companies offer both hire grants and annual grants. These plans are usually subject to a vesting schedule, where an employee is granted shares but earns the right of ownership - i.e., the right to exercise them - over time. Recurring annual grants are usually paid to more senior people, and are more common in established companies where the share price is more level. In startups, the hire grant is considerably larger than any annual grant, and may be the only grant the company offers at first. When a company starts out, the risk is highest, and the share price is lowest, so the options grants are much higher. Over time, the risk decreases, the share price increases, and the number of shares issued to new hires is lower. A good rule of thumb, according to Bill Coleman, vice president of compensation at Salary.com, is that each tier in the organization should get half of the options of the tier above it. For example, in a company where the CEO gets a hiring grant of 400,000 shares, the option grants might look like this. Rule of thumb: each tier gets half the shares of the tier above it. Position Number of shares CEO 400,000 Senior VP 200,000 VP 100,000 Director 50,000 Manager 25,000 Level 2 12,500 Entry-level 6,250 Source: Salary.com, January 2000. Tables 1 and 2 show recent grant practices among high-tech firms that offer annual grants and hire grants, respectively. The data, which comes from published surveys, is expressed in terms of percentages of the company. For illustration, the grants are also expressed in terms of number of options in a company with 20 million shares outstanding. The dataset includes both startups and established companies, especially companies just prior to and just after an IPO. Table 1. Annual stock option grant practices in the high-technology industry. Level Annual grants as a percentage of shares outstanding Options based on 20 million shares outstanding CEO 0.3118% - 0.4320% 62,360 - 86,390 Top executive (2-5) 0.0853% - 0.1728% 17,051 - 34,550 Director 0.0596% - 0.1006% 11,914 - 20,120 Key exempt 0.0160% - 0.0227% 3,195 - 4,547 Other exempt 0.0074% - 0.0104% 1,484 - 2,072 Administrative 0.0049% - 0.0074% 972 - 1,480 Source: Salary.com, based on data compiled from published surveys as of January 2000. Table 2. Stock option hire grants in the high-technology industry. Level Hire grants as a percentage of shares outstanding Options based on 20 million shares outstanding Officers CEO 0.781% - 2.513% 156,270 - 502,650 COO 0.322% - 0.926% 64,340 - 185,190 CFO 0.204% - 0.616% 40,830 - 123,160 CTO 0.110% - 0.495% 21,950 - 99,050 Senior EVP 0.205% - 0.751% 41,070 - 150,280 Senior sales 0.121% - 0.572% 24,280 - 114,450 Senior marketing 0.138% - 0.482% 27,530 - 96,470 Senior operations 0.125% - 0.485% 24,910 - 96,940 Senior professional services 0.091% - 0.386% 18,160 - 77,180 Senior R&D 0.121% - 0.463% 24,190 - 92,680 Senior engineering 0.224% - 0.615% 44,800 - 123,090 SBU executive 0.100% - 0.287% 20,030 - 57,360 Legal counsel 0.064% - 0.236% 12,830 - 47,190 Senior administration 0.071% - 0.137% 14,200 - 27,330 Senior HR 0.048% - 0.183% 9,670 - 36,580 Senior IS 0.047% - 0.106% 9,330 - 21,230 Senior manufacturing 0.032% - 0.102% 6,410 - 20,390 Directors 2nd level - engineering 0.040% - 0.126% 7,910 - 25,160 2nd level - financial 0.045% - 0.141% 8,970 - 28,250 Controller 0.044% - 0.142% 8,790 - 28,470 2nd level - marketing 0.039% - 0.105% 7,700 - 21,000 Senior QA 0.034% - 0.089% 6,810 - 17,820 Senior tech. staff 0.025% - 0.105% 5,030 - 20,910 2nd level - prof. svcs. 0.023% - 0.106% 4,660 - 21,140 2nd level - R&D 0.023% - 0.091% 4,650 - 18,160 Treasurer 0.030% - 0.082% 5,900 - 16,360 Assoc. legal counsel 0.017% - 0.103% 3,390 - 20,550 2nd level - IS 0.015% - 0.065% 2,910 - 12,940 Facilities/real estate 0.016% - 0.045% 3,140 - 8,900 Managers 3rd level - engineering 0.017% - 0.071% 3,430 - 14,100 3rd level - marketing 0.018% - 0.064% 3,650 - 12,870 HR - comp/benefits 0.012% - 0.034% 2,320 - 6,740 Accounting manager - entry 0.006% - 0.031% 1,200 - 6,110 Lead - Tech Test engineer 0.020% - 0.070% 3,930 - 14,070 Manufacturing engineer 0.017% - 0.061% 3,370 - 12,120 Technical support 0.020% - 0.060% 3,960 - 11,900 Sales Reps Senior 0.009% - 0.034% 1,750 - 6,810 Entry 0.003% - 0.011% 580 - 2,100 Other Exempt Exempt technical (senior) 0.012% - 0.045% 2,310 - 8,977 Exempt technical (intermediate) 0.006% - 0.025% 1,170 - 5,020 Exempt technical (entry) 0.003% - 0.011% 630 - 2,210 Exempt nontechnical (senior) 0.004% - 0.016% 830 - 3,100 Exempt nontechnical (intermediate) 0.003% - 0.010% 527 - 2,070 Exempt nontechnical (entry) 0.002% - 0.005% 350 - 1,060 Source: Salary.com, based on data compiled from published surveys as of January 2000. Note that it is rare for a stock options grant to someone other than a CEO to exceed 1 percent. (Founders typically retain a significantly larger percentage of the company, but their shares are not included in the data.) To take an extreme example, if 100 employees were granted an average of 1 percent of the company each, there would be nothing left for anyone else. Ownership percentages at a liquidity event As a company prepares for an initial public offering, a merger, or some other liquidity event (a financial moment at which shareholders are able to sell, or liquidate, their shares), the ownership structure typically shifts somewhat. At an IPO, for example, high-profile senior executives are usually brought in to provide additional credibility and management insight. "Wall Street, investment bankers, and the financial community as a whole look at the management team when evaluating an investment opportunity," said Coleman. "Employees who have been there since the beginning are sometimes surprised to see large numbers of options being given out near the IPO, but they should expect it. Although it dilutes their ownership, it's done to increase the value of the company by enticing the highest caliber of senior managers and thus improving the potential of the investment." The people who design stock option plans anticipate liquidity events by setting aside large reserves of options for these late-stage hires. As a result, the ownership structure of a high-tech company at a liquidity event resembles that in Table 3. Again, the numbers are expressed in terms of both percentage of shares outstanding and number of shares in a company with 20 million shares outstanding. The data comes from published surveys and from analysis of S-1 filings. Table 3. Ownership levels at a liquidity event in the high-tech industry. Level Ownership levels as a percentage of shares outstanding Ownership based on 20 million shares outstanding President and CEO 2.40% - 4.60% 480,000 - 920,000 Vice presidents (all) 0.25% - 1.95% 50,000 - 390,000 VP, CFO 0.80% - 1.60% 160,000 - 320,000 VP, engineering 1.15% - 1.95% 230,000 - 390,000 VP, operations 0.70% - 1.50% 140,000 - 300,000 VP, HR 0.25% - 1.05% 50,000 - 210,000 VP, general counsel 0.50% - 1.30% 100,000 - 260,000 VP, marketing 0.40% - 1.20% 80,000 - 240,000 VP, sales 0.80% - 1.60% 160,000 - 320,000 Directors 0.10% - 1.00% 20,000 - 200,000 Managers 0.03% - 0.50% 6,000 - 100,000 Senior contributors 0.03% - 0.20% 6,000 - 40,000 Intermediate contributors 0.02% - 0.07% 4,000 - 14,000 Entry contributors 0.01% - 0.05% 2,000 - 10,000 Nonexempt 0.01% - 0.03% 2,000 - 6,000 Source: Salary.com, based on data compiled from published surveys and analysis of actual practices from S-1 filings as of January 2000. Information excludes founder's holdings. Fortier emphasized that it's important to bear in mind the changes in compensation practices over time. "This data reflects grant practices during the dot-com boom," he said. "The new numbers for 2001 have not been tallied yet, but I wouldn't be surprised if there were some shift in the makeup of compensation packages in industries across the board." Ironically, however, he said, "It is precisely when the stock market is down - like it is now - that you ideally want to negotiate for more options." - Johanna Schlegel, Salary.com Editor-in-Chief