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Hamamatsu Corp. - Earth Innovations LB 2/24

Electron-Multiplying CCD for Lidar Applications

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Bertrand De Monte, e2v Technologies

Until recently, only photomultiplier tubes were suitable for low-light imaging. However, this technology and associated poor spatial resolution were not suited to scientific applications. Solid-state devices such as image intensifiers or electron-bombarded devices brought solutions to some key applications but have shown limitations such as poor modulation transfer function, low quantum efficiency or degradation at high light levels.

But now, electron-multiplying amplification can be used to enable enhanced imaging in minimal or high light. One system, the L3Vision CCD from e2v, enables improved performance with blue response and low cost.

The amplification process comes from excitation of electron-hole pairs by impact ionization. Tuning electron-multiplying input voltage tunes the amplification gain from 1x up to 1000x. As a result, a wide range of light levels can be covered, from daylight to the lowest photon flux.

The technology pushes light-level boundaries and can be employed in a wide range of markets, such as spectroscopic, scientific or lidar applications. A detector incorporating e2v’s L3Vision CCD technology recently was designed, manufactured and characterized for use in lidar applications.

The L3Vision CCD was designed for possible use as the detector in a space-based lidar instrument with a 667-ns temporal sampling window to yield 100-m spatial resolution. A simplified overview of the instrument and its operation is shown in Figure 1. Use with a 355-nm laser required high quantum efficiency at ultraviolet wavelengths, necessitating a back-illuminated CCD structure.


Figure 1.
Lidar system overview. Images courtesy of e2v technologies.


The detector’s architecture used high-speed charge binning to combine signals from each sampling window into a single charge packet. This was then passed through a multiplication register (electron-multiplying CCD) operating with a typical gain of 100x to a conventional charge detection circuit. The detector achieved a typical quantum efficiency of 80 percent and a total noise in darkness of <0.5 e rms.

Electron-multiplication register

To achieve the required noise performance, it was predicted that multiplication gains in the range from 50 to 200 would be required. This range is readily achieved with a gain register similar to that used on previous e2v technologies designs, typically using 500 multiplication stages.

The stability of the multiplication gain was reviewed, as this depends on temperature and operating voltages, which are a very strong function of the amplitude of the high-voltage clock pulse (RØ2HV). Analysis of results from other devices suggested that a temperature stability of ±0.25 °C and a voltage stability of 4 mV would be necessary to achieve the required gain stability. Part of the characterization phase of the program was to demonstrate that these levels are achievable. Comparison with other devices suggested also that the required levels of linearity should be achievable with a standard register design for the system signal levels and the range of gains discussed above.

To allow calibration of the multiplication gain and measurement of linearity, an electrical input structure at the start of the gain register was proposed, based on similar structures that had been used on test devices produced by e2v. Electrical input was preferred rather than optical methods, as it allows better control and charge measurement for calibration.

It is known that, for a fixed high-voltage register clock amplitude, the on-chip multiplication gain drops as the device is run. This process is known as aging and depends on the total quantity of charge transferred through the multiplication register. To maximize the useful life of the sensor, it is important to ensure that only the wanted signals are passed through the register. The low duty cycle of the system, 400 signal samples in 10 ms, should ensure a tolerable level of aging over the mission lifetime.

Signal collection from 120-μm detector

Charge generated within the 120-µm-square detector area in a 667-ns interval must be combined into a single CCD element at the input of the gain register. This process must minimize the crosstalk between successive temporal samples. Charge transfer across a single pixel of this dimension would be extremely slow, particularly at the very low signal levels (~1 e per sample) at which the sensor was required to operate.

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To achieve the required performance, a number of architectures were considered, but it was concluded that the lowest risk was the use of conventional clocked binning of charge in an array of smaller pixels. This has the secondary advantage that the sensor area can be operated in a conventional imaging mode for alignment and other purposes.

The number and size of the pixels into which the detector is divided were determined by the trade-off between clock frequency and transfer efficiency. A larger number of smaller pixels requires a higher clock frequency to read out in the available time. A smaller number of larger pixels will have decreased transfer efficiency due to the slower charge transit time, which increases approximately as the cube of the pixel dimension.

A 6 x 6-pixel array of 20-µm-square pixels was calculated to be optimum. This pixel size allows clocking at 24 MHz with good transfer efficiency, which enables six image and two overscan pixels to be binned within a 667-ns sample period, with sufficient time remaining for the other required clocking.

For typical levels of charge transfer efficiency, the crosstalk between successive temporal samples of the optical signal is dominated by the “frame shift smear” in the image section. A model developed to calculate this for a range of optical spot sizes and positions confirmed that the specified value of 13 percent could be met.


Figure 2.
This schematic shows the architecture of L3Vision CCD technology.


In Figure 2, the image section consists of a central 6 x 6-pixel array with additional rows and columns to minimize edge effects, as shown in Figure 3. Charge from the additional columns on each side is directly dumped to drains next to the binning register (not shown in the schematic). The image section has a total of 10 rows with the photosensitive region defined by a metal light shield, which is deposited directly on the CCD. Two-phase clock electrodes are used to simplify the high-speed clocking required to perform charge binning. Charge from the whole image section is binned into a summing well adjacent to the binning register but isolated from it by a separately clocked transfer gate.


Figure 3.
This diagram demonstrates the architecture of the image section.


Lidar mode operating sequence

An overview of the lidar mode operation is shown in Figure 4. During the standby period, the image section is clocked with the dump gate held high to clear unwanted charge to the dump drain. In the acquisition period, photogenerated charge is integrated in the image section and rapidly binned vertically into the summing well. This integration and binning occur in a first 667-ns sample period.

During a second sample period, while the second sample signal is integrated, the first sample is transferred to the binning register. The first sample is binned horizontally into the gain register, while the second sample is binned into the summing well. During each following sample period, the first sample signal is advanced one stage along the gain register and multiplied.

Figure 4. Lidar mode overview.

When the required set of 400 samples has been acquired into the multiplication register, the device is switched to readout mode. In this mode, the clocking of the multiplication register continues with the same timing, but the image and binning register clocks are stopped to avoid feedthrough into the output video waveform.

After readout is completed, the device returns to standby mode. The multiplication register is clocked continuously with a constant duty cycle throughout the entire sequence to facilitate maintaining a stable amplitude of, typically, 40 V, as required to yield a gain of 100x.

The electron-multiplying amplification process enables enhanced imaging in minimal light with systems such as the L3Vision CCD, overcoming the spatial resolution limitations of photomultiplier tubes as well as the modulation transfer function, quantum efficiency and degradation issues of solid-state devices such as electron-bombarded devices or image intensifiers. The electron-multiplying amplification process also enables a better blue response and lower cost.

Meet the author


Bertrand De Monte is marketing manager for e2v’s imaging division in Grenoble, France; e-mail: [email protected].

Published: August 2010
Glossary
binning
Combining adjacent pixels into one larger pixel, resulting in increased sensitivity and lower resolution, or, in image analysis, excluding objects based on shape, position or area.
detector
1. A device designed to convert the energy of incident radiation into another form for the determination of the presence of the radiation. The device may function by electrical, photographic or visual means. 2. A device that provides an electric output that is a useful measure of the radiation that is incident on the device.
electron
A charged elementary particle of an atom; the term is most commonly used in reference to the negatively charged particle called a negatron. Its mass at rest is me = 9.109558 x 10-31 kg, its charge is 1.6021917 x 10-19 C, and its spin quantum number is 1/2. Its positive counterpart is called a positron, and possesses the same characteristics, except for the reversal of the charge.
electron multiplying ccd
A CCD device in which a solid-state electron multiplying register has been added to the end of the normal serial register. The electron multiplying register allows weak signals to be multiplied before readout noise is added by the output amplifier.
excitation
1. The process by which an atom acquires energy sufficient to raise it to a quantum state higher than its ground state. 2. More specifically with respect to lasers, the process by which the material in the laser cavity is stimulated by light or other means, so that atoms are converted to a semistable state, initiating the lasing process.
gain
Also known as amplification. 1. The increase in a signal that is transmitted from one point to another through an amplifier. A material that exhibits gain rather than absorption, at certain frequencies for a signal passing through it, is known as an active medium. 2. With reference to optical properties, the term may be defined in two ways: a. the relative brightness of a rear projection screen as compared with a perfect lambertian reflective diffuser; b. the ratio of brightness in footlamberts...
image
In optics, an image is the reconstruction of light rays from a source or object when light from that source or object is passed through a system of optics and onto an image forming plane. Light rays passing through an optical system tend to either converge (real image) or diverge (virtual image) to a plane (also called the image plane) in which a visual reproduction of the object is formed. This reconstructed pictorial representation of the object is called an image.
image intensifier
An electro-optic device consisting of an electronic tube equipped with a light-sensitive electron emitter at one end, and a phosphor screen at the other end, used to convert low levels of light at various wavelengths into a more intense level of light at a single visible wavelength. Image intensifiers are commonly used to enhance visual imaging for low-light applications such as night-vision and fluorescence.
lidar
Lidar, short for light detection and ranging, is a remote sensing technology that uses laser light to measure distances and generate precise, three-dimensional information about the shape and characteristics of objects and surfaces. Lidar systems typically consist of a laser scanner, a GPS receiver, and an inertial measurement unit (IMU), all integrated into a single system. Here is how lidar works: Laser emission: A laser emits laser pulses, often in the form of rapid and repetitive laser...
linearity
A relationship between two variables so that when plotted on a graph they yield a straight line.
noise
The unwanted and unpredictable fluctuations that distort a received signal and hence tend to obscure the desired message. Noise disturbances, which may be generated in the devices of a communications system or which may enter the system from the outside, limit the range of the system and place requirements on the signal power necessary to ensure good reception.
pixel
A pixel, short for "picture element," is the smallest controllable element of a digital image or display. It is a fundamental unit that represents a single point in a raster image, which is a grid of pixels arranged in rows and columns. Each pixel contains information about the color and brightness of a specific point in the image. Some points about pixels include: Color and intensity: In a colored image, each pixel typically consists of three color channels: red, green, and blue (RGB). The...
quantum
The term quantum refers to the fundamental unit or discrete amount of a physical quantity involved in interactions at the atomic and subatomic scales. It originates from quantum theory, a branch of physics that emerged in the early 20th century to explain phenomena observed on very small scales, where classical physics fails to provide accurate explanations. In the context of quantum theory, several key concepts are associated with the term quantum: Quantum mechanics: This is the branch of...
quantum efficiency
Quantum efficiency (QE) is a measure of the effectiveness with which a device or system, typically in the context of photonics or electronics, converts incoming photons (light) into a useful output signal or response. It is expressed as a ratio or percentage and quantifies the number of electrons or charge carriers generated in response to the incident photons. In other words, quantum efficiency provides a measure of how well a device can capture and utilize photons to produce an electric...
sensor
1. A generic term for detector. 2. A complete optical/mechanical/electronic system that contains some form of radiation detector.
spatial resolution
Spatial resolution refers to the level of detail or granularity in an image or a spatial dataset. It is a measure of the smallest discernible or resolvable features in the spatial domain, typically expressed as the distance between two adjacent pixels or data points. In various contexts, spatial resolution can have slightly different meanings: Imaging and remote sensing: In the context of satellite imagery, aerial photography, or other imaging technologies, spatial resolution refers to the...
ultraviolet
That invisible region of the spectrum just beyond the violet end of the visible region. Wavelengths range from 1 to 400 nm.
back-illuminatedBertrand De MontebinningCCDcircuitclock electrodesclock frequencydetectore2ve2v technologieselectronelectron multiplying amplificationelectron multiplying CCDelectron-hole pairsExcitationFeaturesgainimageimage intensifierImagingintensifierionizationL3VisionL3Vision CCDlidarlinearitymodulation transfermultiplicationnoiseon-chipphotomultiplierpixelpixel arrayquantumquantum efficiencyscientificsensorSensors & Detectorssingalsolid-statespatial resolutiontemporal sampleultravioletvoltageLasers

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