In vitro is a Latin term that translates to "in glass." In scientific contexts, particularly in biology and medicine, it refers to experiments or procedures conducted outside of a living organism, typically within controlled laboratory conditions....

Phototoxicity refers to the harmful effects caused by exposure to light, particularly intense or ultraviolet (UV) light, on...

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a mechanism describing the transfer of energy between two closely spaced...

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is an analytical technique that combines the principles of Raman spectroscopy...

Polymers are large molecules composed of repeating structural units called monomers. These monomers are chemically bonded...

A discipline that combines optics and genetics to enable the use of light to stimulate and control cells in living tissue,...

A hydrogel is a three-dimensional network of polymer chains that are hydrophilic, meaning they have a strong affinity for...

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small, single-stranded RNA molecules, typically consisting of about 19 to 24 nucleotides,...

Intravital microscopy is an imaging technique used to visualize biological processes within living organisms, typically in...

A fluorophore is a molecule or a portion of a molecule that has the ability to emit light upon excitation by an external...

Optical tweezers refer to a scientific instrument that uses the pressure of laser light to trap and manipulate microscopic...

Hydrophilic is a term used to describe substances or materials that have an affinity for water. The word hydrophilic comes...

Fluorescent proteins are proteins that exhibit the property of fluorescence, which is the ability to absorb light at a...

Opsins are a group of light-sensitive proteins found primarily in the retinas of vertebrate and invertebrate eyes, as well...

Van der Waals forces refer to the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules (or parts of molecules) that arise from...

Dichroism refers to the property of certain materials to exhibit different colors or absorbance of light depending on the...

Circular dichroism (CD) is a spectroscopic technique used to study the structural characteristics of chiral (asymmetric)...

Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) is a spectroscopic technique that involves using a laser to excite molecules or atoms,...

A type of spectroscopy used extensively in the analysis of biological samples. Because most biologically synthesized...

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a laboratory technique used to detect and measure the presence of specific...

Fluorescence microscopy is a specialized optical imaging technique used in biology, chemistry, and materials science to...

Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) is a molecular biology technique used to rapidly amplify specific DNA or RNA...

Flow cytometry is a powerful technique used in biology and medicine for the quantitative analysis of the physical and...

Histochemical staining is a laboratory technique used in biology and medicine to visualize specific chemical components...

An aptamer is a short, single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule that can bind to a specific target molecule with high affinity...

Label-free refers to a technique or method that does not require the use of additional labels, tags, or markers to detect or...

A spectrophotometer is a scientific instrument used to measure the intensity of light at various wavelengths in the...

An optogenetic technique that embeds genetically-engineered proteins to the heart to aid in terminating arrhythmias. After...

Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) is a therapeutic approach that utilizes the combination of light, a photosensitizer, and...

A biomarker, short for biological marker, refers to a measurable and quantifiable indicator of a biological condition,...

An antigen is any substance that is capable of triggering an immune response in an organism. Antigens are typically proteins...